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How Do Farmers Observe the Health of their Soil and What Tools do they Use? PART A By : Helen Disler Farmers know that soil health is critical to their success. They thus learn to observe nature keenly and to use their observations for refining their farm management practices. Written records are important tools and the farmer should use them to keep track of all information about individual fields. It is easy to evaluate the general tilth and physical aspects of the soil even without using precision instruments. It helps to repeat some tests one or more times a year to see the progress of your soil-improvement program. Texture influences water and nutrient-holding ability. Get a handful of moist soil and squeeze it into a ball. If it falls apart when you open your hand, the soil is sandy. If it remains a ball, squeeze some of it between your fingers and form as long a ribbon as possible, and measure it. If making a ribbon is not possible, the soil is loamy sand. Add some water to the ribbon in your hand until it becomes liquid mud. Feel the mud with the forefinger of the other hand and decide if it is mostly gritty, mostly smooth, or equal parts of both. Soil that forms a ribbon shorter than 1" is sandy loam if it feels mostly gritty, silty loam if mostly smooth and, loam if equally smooth and gritty. A ribbon of soil 1-2" long is sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, and silty clay, respectively. Moisture readings should be taken when the crop is started and several times afterwards. If soil moisture down to a six-inch depth is less than 50%, you will need to add water. Look at the soil for signs of dryness (crusting, cracking, etc.) and see how far down before soil gets darker, indicating more moisture. Get a few handfuls from various depths and squeeze firmly. If your hand gets wet, the soil is saturated. Moisture is probably 25-50% if light-textured soil does not form a ball, medium-textured soil tends to crumble but holds under pressure, and heavy-textured soil is somewhat pliable and balls with pressure. Drainage problems are easily detected. Fill a 12-inch deep, 6-inch diameter hole with water and let the water drain completely. When the water is gone, fill the hole again and observe how long complete draining takes this time. If it takes more than eight hours, drainage is an immediate problem to address. Water infiltration rate gives you an idea of soil porosity. Bring one quart of water, a tape measure, and a stopwatch. The test should be done when the soil is equally dry and wet. At soil level, empty the water and count how many seconds it takes to soak into the ground. Measure the diameter of the wet spot and multiply the diameter by the time. Test the soil several times during the growing season, using exactly one quart of water each time. Over the years, subtle changes become apparent. A declining trend indicates an improving capability to absorb water. Structure and size of soil aggregates and how well they hold together are important aspects of tilth. Soil with good structure holds about two times more water than soil of the same texture but with poor structure. Get some soil and observe how it crumbles in your hand. If well structured, heavy soil still crumbles easily whilst light soil keeps some shape without becoming powdery. If poorly structured, heavy soil resists crumbling whilst light soil becomes powdery. Evaluate aggregate stability by placing several large crumbs (up to one-half inch) in a glass filled with water. If many crumbs hold together, the soil has good structure. The Detrimental Effects of Chemicals on Soil Fungi By : Helen Disler Fungi and bacteria in the soil are the primary recyclers of nutrients in the soil. Whilst bacteria are much more numerous, fungi provide greater biomass because they are relatively bigger. Fungi may be responsible for greater amounts of nutrient retention and soil organic matter formation than bacteria. Decomposers. Saprophytes play key roles in SOM production because of their ability to help decompose both plant and animal remains, including animal dung. Animal hair, hooves, claws and feathers become food for particular fungal species, and many moulds thrive on animal droppings. A succession of saprophytes colonise debris on the ground. Sugar fungi break down simple sugars but not the complex sugar chains known as cellulose and hemicelluloses, or the lignins that hold them together. Sugar fungi are eventually replaced by brown rot fungi, which digest cellulose and hemicelluloses and, when they have accomplished their work, leave behind a brown, crumbly residue rich in lignin. The white rot fungi that replace them have the ability to digest lignin, the residue most resistant to decomposition, and leave behind wood strips that look bleached and stringy. Parasites. Parasitic fungi can seriously damage crop plants. The presence of a host plant is necessary for parasitic fungi to proliferate. Normally, they are specific to certain crops or species, but some can affect several plant species. Continuous planting of the host plant will encourage growth of parasitic fungi, so it is important to promote high biodiversity in farm soils. Mutualists. Called mycorrhizae (myco=fungi; rhizo=root), these fungi invade plant roots but form mutually beneficial relationships which result in better plant nutrition. Many plants probably cannot survive without the mychorrhizae. They extract sugars from plant roots to obtain energy. In exchange, plants gain a lot more in terms of root protection from soil-borne disease-causing organisms and parasites, and better growth rates. Mychorrhizae also produce glomalin, a type of protein, which is important in soil aggregate formation. Glomalin acts as a glue to bind plant cells, fungi, bacteria and microorganisms with soil particles to form larger particles of organic matter which help in providing good soil porosity, promoting water infiltration, and facilitating drainage. At least 90% of agricultural plants form symbiotic relations with mycorrhizae. In terms of interaction with cultivated plants, the mycorrhizae would be of greatest interest to farmers. Mycorrhizae promote root development, increase uptake of nutrient elements (especially nitrogen and phosphorus), protect plants against pests, diseases and drought, and improve soil aggregation. The detrimental effects to farm soil, and consequently farm yields, from the use of chemicals involve the mycorrhizae. Insecticides and systemic fungicides can decimate mychorrhizal populations when applied, while herbicides may remove plants that affect fungi distribution. Methyl bromide, a broad-spectrum biocide, is usually used to kill parasitic nematodes and pathogenic fungi, but it also kills mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizae also become ineffective in soil conditions where nutrient levels are very high or very low. In very low nutrient-level conditions, their sugar extraction activity from plants has a parasitic effect. Their effectiveness is reduced when there is a good supply of phosphorus. Generally, mycorrhizae are most efficient in soils of relatively low fertility that receive little inorganic fertiliser. They are also quite active in soils with ample organic matter, where crops are rotated but with little or no tillage. The Importance of Carbon in the Soil and How it Gets Stored By : Helen Disler Soil organic carbon, which makes up about 60% of the soil organic matter on average, has beneficial effects on many physical, chemical and biological functions of soil quality. It helps support the productivity and diversity of all living organisms in the soil. It influences water-holding capacity, aeration, soil aggregation, and other physical aspects. It affects cation exchange capacity, the supply and availability of other nutrient elements, buffering capacity and other chemical parameters of How Do Plants Get Nutrients in the Soil in a Conventional Farming System? By : Helen Disler Plants need an adequate supply of nutrients -- particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium -- to grow well. Ideally, these nutrients should be available in the proper quantity and at the time the plant can use them. This ideal timing, if complied with, will help farmers avoid supplying an excess of nutrients that plants cannot use anyway and may become contaminants in the environment instead. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the nutrient elements most needed in large amounts by plants; however, they are not available in adequate amounts in the soil. Nitrogen is important for plants because it is a component of proteins and chlorophyll, the active pigment in photosynthesis; it is a constituent of nucleic acids and coenzymes that catalyse cell reactions. Phosphorus is also found in proteins, coenzymes, and nucleic acids; it is critical in metabolism and chemical energy generation and utilisation in the cells. Whilst its role is not clearly defined as a component of the various chemical compounds that make up the plant, potassium is important in the physiological mechanisms that regulate plant processes, particularly the all important processes of photosynthesis and carbohydrate translocation. In conventional farming systems, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are supplied to the soil by application of inorganic fertilisers at levels recommended by soil testing technicians. The caveat is that variable conditions in the soil and the climate affect the rate of uptake or loss of nutrients in ways not yet fully understood. The ability to forecast factors that influence the storage, cycling, availability and uptake of nutrients is still relatively inadequate. This makes it difficult to predict the proper, environmentally safe levels of nutrients. Consequently, the application recommendations that farmers receive may just as easily lead either to insufficient or excessive fertilisation. Working out the appropriate dosage amounts to apply may be tricky. Phosphorus fertiliser undergoes rapid conversion into less soluble compounds in acidic or alkaline soil, which then severely limits their availability for plant nutrition. Even if they are in available forms, the phosphorus may be tightly bound to organic soil compounds and clay, and remain locked in soil, inaccessible by plants. On the other hand, potassium and nitrogen (in its ammonium and nitrate forms) have greater solubility than phosphorus. Nitrate ions will leach readily into the soil, thus nutrient applications are susceptible to significant losses. Potassium and ammonium nitrogen are positively charged and are held on by negatively charged soil in the cation exchange, thus leaching will not occur in appreciable amounts except in sandy soils. Whilst there is understanding of the basic process, agriculture scientists need more information about nutrient cycling and nitrogen behaviour under various environmental conditions. As a result of this difficulty, it is not surprising -- and many studies have found -- that recommended fertiliser doses worked out by some commercial soil testing laboratories consistently required far more fertiliser than was needed. Not only that, some farmers tend to apply greater amounts of nitrogen than recommended. However, with susceptibility to leaching and/or rapid conversion into insoluble forms, there is still no guarantee that the fertilisers will still be available to plants at the time plants have need for them. How Do Plants Get Nutrients in the Soil in a Biological Farming System? By : Helen Disler Plants take up nutrient elements from the soil through their roots. Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in large amounts; very often, these elements are not available in adequate quantities in the soil. Other essential nutrients such as boron, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, sulphur, zinc and others are needed in smaller or trace amounts, and these are often adequately available. If nutrient elements, along with water, are not available in adequate quantities at the time the plant needs them, growth and development will be affected adversely. Biological farming systems make nutrient elements available in the soil through judicious management of nutrient cycles. One important goal of a biological farming system is to provide essential nutrient elements to crops by maintaining or increasing soil fertility with the use of plant residues, animal manure, legumes, composts, green manure cropping, crushed rock minerals and other natural inputs. Supply of essential trace elements and minor nutrients comes from wood ash, crushed minerals and the release of inorganic nutrients already in the soil through biological additives. Organic matter benefits the soil in many ways: improving soil water-holding capacity; enhancing soil structure; binding and releasing mineral nutrients; serving as food for microorganisms that recycle soil nutrients; and being mineralised to nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. Reserves of essential plant nutrients are created with the flow of mineral nutrients between living and non-living components of the soil. Nitrogen is made available by raising legumes in rotation with the regular crop. Unlike inorganic fertiliser nitrogen, leguminous nitrogen is steadily and gradually released throughout the cropping cycle if temperatures are sufficiently high to allow microbial action. Different legume species and cultivars fix different quantities of atmospheric nitrogen. Management practices and physical factors are also significant determinants of nitrogen-fixing, and these include soil pH, temperature, drainage, the timing of harvest, and the turning under of foliage for green manure. Phosphorus does not leach as readily as nitrogen, but in acid or alkaline soils it easily converts into forms not immediately available to plants. The amount dissolved in water determines phosphorus availability for plants. Organic farmers may apply rock phosphate instead of acid-treated phosphate to their fields. However, rock phosphate is significantly less effective than acidulated phosphate. It is possible in some areas to defer application of acidulated phosphates for several years. Manures and organic wastes can be applied to partially replenish phosphorus, but replacement applications of rock/acidulated phosphates will eventually be needed. It is not possible for a farm to attain self-sufficiency in phosphorus. Potassium in immediately available form is usually present in adequate amounts in subhumid and arid regions from weathering of minerals. Humid regions and highly organic soils may need regular replenishments of potassium. Some forage crops (e.g. alfalfa and clover) take up large amounts of potassium, thus the hay or silage should not be harvested but turned under for green manure. Leguminous forages have potentially high levels of this nutrient; this implies that manure from animals consuming such forages should be conserved and returned to the land, for use by the next crop. Understanding And Working With Your Tomato Garden Soil By : Pat Carpenter Staked and pruned plants have fewer problems with fruit rots and leaf spots because their leaves stay drier, and the plant has good airflow around it. Soil Testing: A General Overview By : Helen Disler It is important for farmers to monitor the health of the soil, which produces the plants from which farmers make their living. One of the critical activities in this regard is periodic soil testing. Ideally, soil samples for soil testing are done shortly before making a land management decision -- which may be several months in advance of planting. The results represent the most current indication of soil properties, giving enough time for the objectives of the decision to have impact. For example, to see if limestone should be added to correct soil acidity, soil testing should be done several months before planting to give the limestone sufficient lead-time to react with the soil. Soil testing well in advance of planting provides leeway to make changes if unsuitable growing conditions are found. Sampling depth is crucial, and this depends on your planned crop and the type of soil test to be carried out. Routine soil tests usually require samples obtained from topsoil (0-20 cm depth), but soil tests for mobile soil nutrients (such as NO3-N and SO4-S) may require samples from deeper levels. When collecting subsoil samples take care to avoid contaminating the subsoil with topsoil; contamination can seriously throw off the results and the ensuing recommendations. There are three types of soil tests: chemical, physical and biological. Chemical testing helps determine the soil chemical properties that might constrain plant growth. In chemical tests, the analyst assesses the nutrient-supplying capacity and other chemical properties of the soil known to influence plant growth such as pH, soluble salts, and soil organic matter (SOM) content. The most common methods in use are extraction, equilibration, titration (usually for acidity measurements) and oxidation (by chemical or thermal means, to test for SOM). In chemical extraction, soil samples are dried, ground to fine particles and sieved. Usually, 1 to 10 grams of sample are placed in an extracting vessel and mixed with an extracting solution of pre-determined volume (from 10 to 100mL). The mixture is shaken vigorously for about 5 (or up to 30) minutes and poured through a filter. The analyst then examines the filtrate for the elements of interest. Equilibration involves adding a solution to the soil and, after shaking or letting stand the resulting soil suspension for a short time period, measuring some property of the mixture. Soil pH, lime requirement and soluble salts are measured using this method, although some laboratories may alternatively use titration techniques to measure soil acidity. Wet chemical oxidation measures SOM from the quantity of carbon that can be oxidised by potassium chromate (K2Cr2O7). Issues about the environmental impact of chromium use and disposal have led to the growing popularity of thermal oxidation, using high temperatures (360oC or 680oF) to estimate SOM from the differences in sample weight before and after ignition. Physical tests assess the physical properties of soil that influence growth. The most common test in use is the evaluation of particle size of soil and its distribution. Water-holding capacity may be tested in particular situations, to determine water movement and retention, which help in assessing irrigation potential and setting irrigation schedules. Biological tests are important because the level of biological activity in soil substantially affects plant growth. It is also essential to know if plant pathogens are present in the soil. Earthworms, tiny organisms, and microscopic fungi and bacteria all contribute to a growth-promoting soil environment. Organism activity can also serve as an indication of the state of the soil ecosystem, since they simultaneously influence and are influenced by the physical and chemical condition of the soil. How to find Healthy Soil & Biological Soil Testing By : Helen Disler Modern agriculture has placed greater emphasis on the development of sustainable farming systems. This has led to greater interest in farm management practices that promote the biological aspects of soil fertility. To help farmers in this regard, many approaches to soil biology testing have been developed, which can be classified into tests for population analysis, biological activity, and indirect indicators. Population tests look at the types and numbers of organisms present in the soil. Whilst they give a current picture of the soil biology, it is good to remember that soil populations are very dynamic and subject to rapid changes. For example, biological populations existing before planting can be very different from those at harvest time. It is advisable to consider test results in terms of seasonal variations and time trends. There are many population tests in use or under development. These include nematode analysis (an indicator of nutrient cycling and microbial diversity), fatty acid methyl ester analysis (which calculates ratios of bacteria to fungi, where high values are associated with nitrate/ammonia build-up), food web analysis, detritus diversity and earthworm counts. Biological activity analysis gives an idea of the activity level of soil organisms. Microbes respond rapidly to environmental factors such as temperature, soil pH, moisture, organic matter content, cultivation, and contamination by chemicals and toxic heavy metals. With so many determinants, it is not easy to isolate particular soil problems. But, when compared to information from other fields, the data can indicate what needs to be done to improve soil quality, especially organic matter content. Tests for biological activity include soil respiration rate (to measure amounts of carbon dioxide released from soil into the atmosphere), assays for specific enzymes, and nitrification rates. Indirect indicators assess factors that, when present in sufficient amounts, suggest good soil biological fertility. Most tests measure carbon content at various levels -- soil organic carbon, particulate organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon (to determine amount of carbon available in biological form), and microbial biomass organic carbon (or amount of carbon in microbes). Ground cover as a percentage of total area is also an indirect indicator of soil health. Lack of ground cover suggests salt or acid spots, compacted surfaces or crusting. It is recognised that the thousands of soil organisms give different contributions to healthy soil. The roles of some microorganisms have already been demonstrated. Others have very subtle roles, making it difficult to assess their value. Most biological tests require special equipment and trained technicians. Many farmers might find the following tests very important for their management decisions: Total soil respiration. Since this measures the amount of carbon produced by the total biological population and the respiration (converting organic carbon into carbon dioxide) activity of microorganisms, it gives an idea the rate of organic matter degradation. Microbial biomass nitrogen. Organic matter is a rich source of nutrients, including nitrogen. This test measures the amount of biologically active nitrogen in the soil. It is better to look at values over a time series: a consistently high level provides a safe indication of good soil quality. Earthworms. Earthworms influence, and are also influenced by, other soil organisms. They initiate the first stage of breaking down litter, which provides food to microorganisms responsible for further degradation. They are highly sensitive to changes (both short- and long-term) in the soil ecosystem. The farmer will find it easy to estimate earthworm numbers in the field (expressed in grams per cubic metre) without need for special equipment to obtain a reasonable, albeit rough, measure of soil quality. How Do You Do A Chemical Soil Test? By : Helen Disler Chemical analysis is the most common method used to assess the nutrient content (and nutrient needs) of soil. An accurate determination of nutrient need is possible if two conditions are satisfied: first, that the soil sample is truly representative of the field to be analysed; and, second, that the chemical testing method has been calibrated through enough research to the crops and soils in the area. The farmer may choose to take soil samples either by soil type or on a grid basis. Soil-type sampling involves making a diagram of the field by soil type and obtaining a composite sample of each type. The composite sample may consist of 10 to 15 individual cores of each type which are thoroughly mixed together. From this mix, about 1 pint (0.5L) or 1 pound (0.4kg) is submitted to the lab for testing. This process is done for each soil type present in the field. Grid sampling involves dividing the area into squares of 1.2 to 2.0 ha (3-5 acres) and taking from each square a composite sample consisting of 8 core samples thoroughly mixed together. Contamination of samples should be avoided. The lab may also want historical information about the field, such as cropping history for two years or more, previous applications of fertiliser or manure, yield levels, etc. It is advisable to have the samples analysed by a reputable lab whose technicians are well-acquainted with the soils and crops in the farm's locality. The information generated from the chemical tests gives an indication of the soil quality in the field. Soil organic matter (SOM). Labs use chemical or thermal oxidation of the total soil to determine SOM. Since the carbon content of SOM is typically around 58-60%, a factor of 1.7-1.72 is used to convert soil organic carbon content into SOM. An organic carbon content value of 0.8%, for example, translates into an organic matter content of 0.8% x 1.7 = 1.36%. Larger values of SOM are desirable because SOM enhances water retention as well as nutrient retention properties of soil, making these available to plants. The lab will have to indicate an optimal SOM value for your area. SOM values that decline over time indicate deterioration in quality. Soil reaction (pH). The soil reaction or pH value, measured from soil slurry, is dependent on the type and quantities of organic and inorganic materials. However, environmental and management action also affect pH. Excessive nitrogen fertilisation makes soil acidic, whilst poor management of irrigation can induce alkalinity in soil. A soil pH analysis gives data about active acidity (or the hydrogen ion H+ in solution); in contrast, a test for lime requirement evaluates the reserve acidity (or the buffering ability) and provides an accurate guidance on how much lime to apply to a particular field. Nutrient Availability. Soils can be analysed for virtually all nutrients but within limits. The more routine chemical tests are for phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and manganese -- all of which significantly influence plant growth. There are specific tests tailored to specific soil types and crops. A recommended test will generate data expressed in units of nutrient content per hectare (e.g. kg/ha), and these values will be compared with an appropriate scale defined by local technicians. Chemical soil testing may have the most accurate results in soil testing because they entail precise measurements of nutrients detected in the soil. Selection of the method is a decision made by the lab scientists, depending on the facilities available to them. The farmer's role is to submit the most representative, contamination-free samples of the soil in their fields. Healthy Soil & Soil Structure Information By : Helen Disler Soil physical fertility is determined by its ability to satisfy the essential growth requirements of the crop planted in it. These requirements include storage and supply of water, nutrient elements, and oxygen -- all made available to the plant through its roots. Good soil physical fertility is indicated by the presence of adequate water and air to promote prompt seed germination and good root growth, and by its minimal need for seedbed preparation. The physical fertility of soil is influenced by its properties and processes. The important properties include soil structure and soil texture. The physical processes that affect fertility include particle aggregation, water infiltration rate, waterlogging, and erosion. There is a dynamic interplay among these factors, each influencing and in turn being influenced by the others. Measuring physical properties requires sophisticated instruments and highly-trained technicians. From the farmer, it demands considerable time and thoroughness in sampling procedure. Adding to the difficulty, commercial labs are more focused on chemical tests and evaluate only few physical properties. Consequently, farmers may have to resort to qualitative observations in the field and use formulas in reference books. Soil structure refers to soil aggregation and pore-size distribution and describes how the individual soil particles stick together to form larger aggregates. Soils with relatively few aggregates present are considered to have poor structure. Aggregate formation is strongly influenced by the amount of organic matter in the soil because of its ability to bind particles together. The spaces (or pores) between aggregates create a channel for drainage of water; if there is adequate space for drainage, waterlogging is minimised. Soil can retain water in its finer pores; this prevents rapid evaporation to the wilting point. Larger pores allow water and air to flow in the soil, and weaken soil enough for roots to grow. Smaller pores are the points of storage for available water and nutrients. A balance of small to large pores (and therefore of small and large aggregates) is needed for good fertility. Aggregate stability helps determine the ability of the soil to withstand the impact of weather action: falling rain; surface flow of water; and wind erosion. The tests applied to assess soil structure include, among others, those that measure water holding capacity, dispersible clay, infiltration rate of rain or irrigation water into the soil, and qualitative observations on soil appearance on and below the surface. Soil texture is easy to estimate in the field. Sandy soil has low water-holding capacity but needs little tilling; in contrast, clayish soil has high-water holding capacity and requires more tilling. Loamy soil has adequate water-holding capacity and favourable pore-size distribution conducive to plant growth. Soils that are easy to till have roughly the same amounts of large and small pores. Farmers can measure soil bulk density easily. Carefully take a core sample, then remove and weigh the soil. Line the hole left by the core sample with thin plastic and fill it with water, taking note of the exact water volume (which is equivalent to the soil volume). The ratio of soil weight in grams to the soil volume in cubic centimeters is the bulk density. Good, well-aerated soils have bulk density values ranging from 0.9-1.35 g/cm3. Soil bulk density depends a lot on soil organic matter (SOM) content: SOM is porous, with many air spaces, thus it tends to lower the soil density. The degree of compaction also impacts bulk density and highly compacted soils have values more than 2 g/cm3. If bulk density increases over time, this is a sign of declining soil quality due to loss of SOM or compaction. Why is the life in your soil so important? By : Helen Disler The entire food production system depends for its viability on healthy soil. Healthy soil produces the healthy crops that give nourishment to people. Organic farming is intimately related to the concept of soil health because its advocates have always believed that a healthy soil is the key to the sustained production of healthy, nutritious food. The main indicators of soil health are the amount of fresh organic matter and the level of biological activity. Soil is a living ecosystem, and healthy soil is filled with different organisms, microscopic and larger ones, responsible for converting minerals and decomposing matter into nutrients plants can use. The microscopic organisms include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and algae. The larger fauna include earthworms, insects, and mammals such as moles, mice and rabbits (which live in the soil at certain stages of their life cycle). Biological activity is dependent on organic matter content. The organic matter in soil comes mostly from dead plant tissue. Plant residue consists principally of moisture (60-90%), but the dry matter in it has many elements including carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, some sulphur, calcium, magnesium, as well as nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. It has an active component that includes microbes (10-40%) and a stable component often called humus (40-60%). These components (or fractions) are not end products but are involved in a dynamic process. The decomposition rate of soil organic matter depends on soil properties such as texture, temperature, moisture, pH, aeration, mineralogy and soil biology, for example. In turn, the soil organic matter influences the said soil properties. Organic matter is rich in nutrients, which are returned to the soil in a form readily available to plants. This nutrient cycling loop should be maintained if soil is to remain healthy. This means that organic matter should be added (from crop residues, manure, and other sources) at a rate equal to or greater than the rate of consumption or decomposition, taking into account the rate of usage by plants and losses by erosion and leaching. If the rate of addition is less than decomposition, soil organic matter declines along with soil health. Both the active and stable components of soil organic matter, in combination with microbes particularly earthworms and fungi, play significant roles in the formation of bigger aggregates from fine particles of organic matter and mineral material. Aggregates are crucial for good soil structure, aeration, water infiltration and holding capacity, and ability to withstand erosion. A healthy soil system, then, involves not only soil fertility but also soil structure, acid build-up and erosion. Its functions include the conversion of decaying organic matter into stable humus, the retention of various nutrients including nitrogen and delivery of nutrients in a form plants can readily assimilate, the formation of aggregates, the protection of root systems from parasites and diseases, the production of plant hormones to promote growth, and the retention of water. Farmers need to have healthy soil in order to sustain their food production activities. Exploitative farming systems draw nutrients from the soil without fully replenishing them and restoring soil quality. Organic farmers can do many things to maintain, enhance and rebuild the soils in their farms. They have many options available to them. Need Help Preparing Healthy Soil? By : Uchenna Ani-Okoye If you're getting ready to go on a new garden venture, you require preparing your soil to ideally house your plants. Where Did The Soil Come From? By : Uchenna Ani-Okoye Soil primarily had its commencing from rock together with animal and vegetable decay, if you can imagine long stretches or periods of time whenever great rock masses were crumbling and breaking up. Making Your Own Soil Through Garden Gourmet Compost Bins By : Matthew Stanton Looking for a way to recycle all those food scraps in your home? Wanting to have fresh soil material for your garden plants? If you have answered yes to both these questions, look no further. This article will tell you how to do that, through the Tuber-useful compost bins. Learn what the composting process involves before having one facility in your own backyard. Soil Testing-How to Buy the Right Fertilizer By : Andrew Stratton Every farmer or gardener is aware that all land is not created equally. Instead of just guessing at what is missing for best plant performance, it is better to put some science behind your next fertilizer purchase. Growing Tomatoes in the Home Garden - Soil Preparation By : Thomas Smith Perhaps one of the biggest reasons people fail in gardening is a misunderstanding of soil preparation and structure. This applies not only to tomatoes, but also to any vegetable you are growing. Your garden soil is literally the foundation of any gardening endeavor. How To Use Food To Describe The Range Of Ph In Soil By : Trudy Coulter Everyone you talk to tells you that you need to adjust your soil's PH balance! Despite all those chemical names, which you don't begin to understand, it is NOT rocket science! You can very easily grasp enough of the concept to greatly improve your lawn or garden. Why Knowing Your Soil Makes The Perfect Lawn Child's Play! By : Trudy Coulter Soil is the foundation of a lawn. Just like your house or any building needs a foundation to survive so does GRASS. Build the proper foundation, ie soil, and the PERFECT LAWN is as easy as 1,2,3! Soil Preparation For a Productive Garden - Best Practices By : Richard Murray Proper soil preparation for your garden is the foundation upon which your gardening efforts rest. Soil - Why Soil Is Important For Your Organic Garden By : Chris Dailey Here are a few tips on how you can improve the quality of your soil so that your organic plants can grow quickly and easily. Pointers to Selecting the Right Soil By : Jimmy Cox Without soils, no life could exist on earth. The lowly bacterial cell and the massive pachyderm both owe their being to this basic stuff of life. Information To Help Keep Soil At The Best PH Level By : Jimmy Cox Years ago, Dr. Edgar T. Wherry devised a classification of soils by degrees of acidity; it is still useful but should be qualified by the fact that many plants spill over into two or more classifications while some are relatively sensitive to pH. Gardening Soil By : neil parnham The perfect soil does not exist and most gardeners have to make do with whatever nature or the house builder has left them. The soil itself ultimately governs which plants will grow well and anyone who doubts this should try to grow rhododendrons on chalk or lime. Here is Why You Should Use Gypsum in Gardening By : James Ellison Many a gardener have been confused about the role of gypsum in gardening. It is a soil additive for micronutrients, conditioner, amendement and fertilizer. The Importance Of Proper Soil Chemistry To A Healthy Garden By : Andrew Manifield Trying to grow healthy, vibrant flowers without proper soil chemistry is definitely a case of putting the cart before the horse. Good soil is the cornerstone of successful gardening, and it is important to make sure that your soil will meet the needs of your plants before the first seed is planted.

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